This chapter discusses the research design,
the method of data generation, the form of data that were being sought and the
way in which they were 'transformed' into knowledge. As such, this is a chapter
that is of fundamental importance to the study, as it is the method of inquiry,
the methodology and their application that dictated the form and style of data
that would be generated.
According to Honderich, Hermes was a
messenger of the Greek gods, whose name gave rise to the terms 'hermeneuein' (to
interpret) and 'hermeneutike' (techne), the art of interpretation (1995, pp.
353-4). Its original use was in the interpretation of ancient texts, most
notably the Bible, and it is still employed in this theological arena in the
late 20Th century. Honderich also identifies three distinct 'phases' of
hermeneutics which have evolved in modern times (1995, pp. 353-4). The first
phase, or form, of hermeneutics, was identified and given cohesion by Friederich
Schleiermacher (1768-1834), a Protestant theologian and avid scholar of the
works of Plato. For Schleiermacher, the 'interpreters' goal was the
understanding of the texts as well as, or better than, the authors themselves.
He advocated that the interpreter try to become aware of the unconscious mind of
the author, ' ... except in so far as he reflects on [his] own work and becomes
[his] own reader' (Honderich 1995, p. 353). Here the text was to be interpreted
from two aspects; in terms of the language in which it was written, and in terms
of the reasoning and internal development of the author. It was also
acknowledged however, that a definitive understanding of any text would be
improbable, given that we cannot gain a singularly complete knowledge of any
language or person. We can, however, use hermeneutics to place us in a position
that significantly increases our awareness and comprehension, and this is what
Schleiermacher sought to promote.
Schleiermacher's own biographer, Wilhelm
Dilthey (1833-1911) went on to develop a second phase of hermeneutics, also
extending Emmanuel Kant's ideas in this regard, to the cultural sciences.
Dilthey's view of hermeneutic's extended to the understanding and interpretation
of all human behaviour and products as 'texts', rather than only what was
written in the form of ancient documents. He also added another 'dimension' to
this method of inquiry, that of the 'lived experience' of the author, the
expression and understanding of their 'spirit', which the researcher was
encouraged to know and understand as an integral part of the hermeneutical
process (Honderich 1995, pp. 353-4).
Dilthey was also involved in the third phase
of hermeneutics, exerting his influence on Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), a
German philosopher who is most often acknowledged as being the progenitor of a
movement known as 'existentialism'. Heidegger also became aware of hermeneutics
through his theological background, but in his writing, paid repeated tributes
to Dilthey, whom he credited with bringing the field of hermeneutics into
prominence (Spiegelberg 1982, pp. 380-3). Heidegger, however, further developed
the use of hermeneutics in reference to '... non-symbolic facts of the real
world, to human being or Dasein'.
In fact it is the
interpretation of this particular type of being for which Heidegger reserved the
term "hermeneutic". Only indirectly is hermeneutics relevant to
ontology in general, since it deals with Dasein, i.e., that type of being which
provides the foundation for the interpretation of Being in general (Spiegelberg
1982, p. 394).
This last 'phase' of hermeneutical thought
favours one of the three principle forms of knowledge given credence by Jurgen
Habermas and which, he asserts, operates
... within a
methodological framework of the interpretation of common experience and [are]
oriented to a maximum intersubjectivity of mutual understanding (Habermas 1972,
cited in Waters 1994, pp. 192-3).
Hermeneutics no
longer presents rules for, or a theory of, interpretation; it is the
interpretation of 'Dasein' (Honderich 1995, p. 353).
As such, 'objective' interpretation is
discarded in favour of understanding the concept of 'being' and 'being there',
in unique environments. To Heidegger, there is more to understanding than merely
comprehending the 'text', whatever its form; there is for example, the author
and their world, which we must also try to understand if we are to attain a
fuller insight of what is being 'said', or 'told'. Heidegger's hermeneutic's
also embraced the concept and importance of phenomenology, but in a manner which
'defied' traditional understandings of phenomenology at that time. His concept
of phenomenology focused upon '...what shows itself ... [but] ... more
specifically ...what shows itself in person' (Spiegelberg 1982, p. 382). As
Spiegelberg notes, it was a concept which alluded that the phenomenon of 'being'
is '... an autonomous entity with powers of its own, independent of and prior to
our thinking' (1982, p. 382). In essence, phenomenology represents a method of
inquiry into the world of 'being' which aims to understand the 'meaning' of life
by probing pre-reflective awareness.
Heidegger is also credited with 'endowing'
phenomenology with a much greater significance than it had previously
experienced. He was also a loyal follower of Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), the
German philosopher who is most generally credited with being the founder of
phenomenology as a form of 'serious' inquiry. Husserl's background was
originally in the field of logic and mathematics, but the period from 1884-1886,
when Husserl studied with Franz Brentano (1838-1917), proved to be pivotal in
Husserl's 'development' of the concept of phenomenology. According to Lindlof
'... Husserl's philosophy of phenomenology sought to define the
"essence" of the objects of our perceptions' (1995, p. 32). Husserl
asserted that our ability to 'be conscious' dictates the way in which we 'see'
and 'face' the world we live in, that consciousness is inherently 'intentional'
and hence that consciousness is always a conscious awareness of something (Lindlof
1995, p. 32). It was Husserl's objective to try and understand the essence of
things; to achieve some comprehension of how common objects of perception are
meaningfully constituted.
By engaging in phenomenological research, it
becomes possible to illuminate some of the fundamental ways in which we make
sense of everyday life calling for the researcher to '... see what is normally
hidden and forgotten ...' (Spiegelberg 1982, p. 382). That is, to recollect, or
engender recollection and then recognise the value of the hidden, concealed and
forgotten. In fact the second component of the term 'phenomenology' means in its
literal sense '... a method of taking the hidden out of its hiding, and of
detecting it as "unhidden", i.e., as truth (Spiegelberg 1982, p. 383).
Arguably it is the French phenomenologists
however, such as Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980), Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1907-1961)
and Paul Ricoeur, who are credited with making this form of inquiry more
'accessible' and allowing it to be utilised in other fields of study such as
psychology, religion, literature and politics. Not only did the French
'de-mystify' the previously difficult terminology of both Husserl and Heidegger,
they also succeeded in broadening phenomenology's range of reference (Kearney
1994, pp. 12-13).
Ricoeur's concept of phenomenology, for
example, is one that is irrefutably tied to the notion of interpretation. It is
his belief that '... we do not begin with a pure reflective consciousness ...
that [the human subject] can only interpret himself by interpeting the
"signs" of an external world not his own' (Kearney 1994, p. 92). That
is, that the individual cannot accept that their 'consciousness' is objective
simply by its very nature, rather they must accept that this 'consciousness' is
a product of complex socio-historical worlds. Sartre firmly believed that,
... truth is
subjectivity, with the phenomenological message that we must return to our
"lived" experience in order to rediscover an intentional and creative
relationship with the world (Kearney 1994, p. 53).
Rather than rely simply on the power of words
as being a form of '... mental duplication of the world ... ' (Gusdorf 1965, p.
38), Sartre argued that the individual must, by necessity, accept their 'being'
as one which is fundamentally value-laden. In terms of language and
communication, truth does not necessarily reside in the words themselves, but
must be sought after 'beyond' the words, by means of interpretation. It is in
this sense that I see hermeneutics as being able to provide a practical and
effective 'partnership', when allied with phenomenology and particularly where
the objective is the search for information which may be transformed into
knowledge.
Hermeneutic-phenomenology is a method of
inquiry rather than a theoretical standpoint, through which a researcher can
effectively 'funnel' his or her research findings. Whilst it is readily
acknowledged that there are many diversities within the separate 'hermeneutic'
and 'phenomenological' forms of social inquiry, there exists within these
diversities some fundamental and shared principles (Spiegelberg 1982, pp. 1-19;
Zaner and Ihde 1973, pp. 333-74). These principles include an interest in
understanding the phenomena at hand from the 'inside', in the study of the
lifeworld, in comprehending the meaning of everyday experiences; in providing
credible insights of our 'social' world.
By 'partnering' hermeneutics and
phenomenology, which argues is inevitable given that all description is
necessarily interpretation Heidegger (1962, p. 37), the researcher,
... tries to be
attentive to both terms of its methodology: it is a descriptive
(phenomenological) methodology because it wants to be attentive to how things
appear, it wants to let things speak for themselves; it is an interpretive
(hermeneutic) methodology because it claims that there are no such things as
uninterpreted phenomena (Van Manen 1991, p. 180).
Van Manen's conceptualisation of
hermeneutic-phenomenology is used in this research study, as his approach
reflects much of my own sentiments regarding research inquiries and data
analysis. This took
into account the fact that I was concerned with the life experience's of the
individual, consequent meanings and behaviours derived from these experiences,
and so understanding of the lives of these individuals within their own unique
contexts. In Van Manen's words, hermeneutic-phenomenological research is
concerned with '... a search for the fullness of living' (1990, p. 12), and
providing an approach which allows the study of the lifeworld,
... the world as we
immediately experience it pre-reflectively rather than as we conceptualize,
categorize, or reflect on it (Schutz and Luckmann 1973; Husserl 1970 cited in
Van Manen 1990, p. 9).
This approach, or method of inquiry, attempts
to describe and interpret the relevant meanings of the research, to a '...
certain degree of depth and richness' (Van Manen 1990, p. 11). It does not focus
upon statistical relationships, but attempts to resolve meanings '... as we live
them in our everyday existence, our life-world' (Van Manen 1990, p. 11).
Hermeneutic-phenomenology is particularly
interested in the complexities and diversities of our societies (1991, p. 18).
The determining factor in my decision to utilise Van Manen's approach was,
however, his specific concern for the articulation and importance of context,
the need for the development of creative approaches and procedures when carrying
out research studies, (which he argues should be uniquely suited to both project
and individual researcher), and an understanding and awareness of 'self' within
the context of the study boundaries.
Little research has been carried out in terms
of men talking about themselves, particularly in relation to the utilisation of
the electronic environment. Studies that been carried out are indicative of
immense amounts of 'untold' data, particularly in terms of men 'telling' of
their lived experiences.
In early December 1997, I began to place
strategic advertisements on the Internet in order to see what reaction I might
receive from men who might be interested in taking part in my study. I placed
these advertisements (see I) in newsgroups such as alt.acadia and soc.men, on
listservs such as anthro-l, and on message boards such as Pathfinder and the
Augsburg College Bulletin Board System. These advertisements were worded to
reflect the nature, intentions and bounds of the prospective project. They
stressed a strong ethos of confidentiality and anonymity, if required, and the
necessity for close and frequent interaction over an extended period of time.
On the return of each consent form, the
investigative section of my research began in earnest, as it was an inherent
factor in this study that a trusting an honest relationship be established
between myself and my co-investigators, as quickly as possible (see Chapter 4).
In all, six men, ranging in age from 21 years to 72 years chose to participate
in the study; four from the United States of America, one from the United
Kingdom, and one American who has lived in Australia for several years. All of
the men reported that they were heterosexual, three were married, and the
remaining three were not in current relationships at the time of the study.
Participation was purely voluntary, with no monetary (or other) incentives
offered.
Seidman's 'Three Interview Series' was used
as the method of interviewing and obtaining data, with adaptations made as
necessary to suit the context of this study. The purpose of this specific method
of interviewing was to; (1) generate data regarding the participant's life
history (2) obtain details of participant's life experiences pursuant to the
issue of masculinity and identity, and to (3) allow for participants to reflect
upon the meanings of these life experiences. The only specific requirement for
this study was that the participant be male, which was stipulated in the
advertisements. Measures were taken to ensure that this was in fact true in each
case, given the nature of the study medium, and the ambiguity that often
surrounds interaction in this context concerning sex and gender. As such, and
although these measures were undertaken, and despite the fact that I am
confident that I did in fact interview 'men', I cannot say, with absolute
certainty, that this was in fact the definitive truth.
The
Construction of Themes from the Data
Themes, or the act of construction of
thematic formulations, help the researcher to focus upon the 'significant'
factors in the data, in relation to what they are seeking to understand.
According to Van Manen, a theme is the experience of meaning, a simplification
of the summary of the significant factor (1990, p. 87). It is not an object one
encounters at certain points or moments in a text but is a way of 'capturing'
the phenomenon one is trying to understand.
Also important is our understanding of how
themes come to 'be', which Van Manen explains as being the needfulness or desire
to make sense, the sense we are able to make of something, the openness to do
something, and, finally, the process of insightful invention, discovery and
disclosure (1990, p. 88). In terms of how a theme relates to the notion of what
is being studied, the theme is the means to get at the notion, gives shape to
the shapeless, describes the content of the notion, and is always a reduction of
a notion (Van Manen 1990, p. 88). Phenomenological themes ' ... are not objects
or generalizations; metaphorically speaking they are more like knots in the webs
of our experiences, around which certain lived experiences are spun and thus
lived through as meaningful wholes' (Van Manen 1990, p. 90). In utilising these
themes to guide us in our explorations, we can attain a deeper, more
comprehensive insight into our world (Van Manen 1990, p. 90.
Uncovering
the Thematic Statements
In seeking meaning, Van Manen asserts that '
... any lived-experience description is an appropriate source for uncovering
thematic aspects of the phenomenon it describes ... ' (1990, p. 92). However, he
also concedes that some descriptions may be a richer source of information than
others, and that different people will contribute more to our understanding of
life, than others. Nevertheless, he argues, ' ... when a person shares with us a
certain experience then there will always be something there for us to gather
... ' (Van Manen 1990, p. 92). Van Manen also states that, in general, the
researcher has a choice of three ' ... approaches toward uncovering or isolating
the thematic aspects of a phenomenon in some texts ... ' (Van Manen 1990 p. 92).
(1) the wholistic or sententious approach; (2) the selective or highlighting
approach and (3) the detailed or line-by-line approach.
In this study, I chose to employ the second
approach, that of the selective or highlighting approach, where the researcher
reads the text several times and asks, '... What statement(s) or phrase(s) seem
particularly essential or revealing about the phenomenon or experience being
described ... ?', with the ensuing statements then being underlined, circled or
highlighted (Van Manen 1990, p. 93). I made this decision after considering both
the form of the data being generated, and the way it was being procured. The
second approach also mirrored Seidman's concept of coding and analysis of the
data, where the data may be organised into categories, and then 'searches' made
for patterns and connections between these categories which might be called
themes (1991, pp. 99-103). Seidman also stresses, however, the quandary that is
often involved with categorising, asserting that:
The process of
working with excerpts from participants' interviews, seeking connections among
them, and building interpretative categories is demanding and often involves
risks. The danger is that the researcher will try to enforce the excerpts into
categories, and the categories into themes that he or she already has in mind,
rather than let them develop from experience of the participants as represented
in the interviews (Seidman 1991, p. 101).
It was important then, to remain aware of the
dangers involved with self-categorisation, and to allow the themes to emerge
from the data itself.
Given the analytic framework within which I
chose to work, the following major thematic statements emerged.
Themes
Related to the Medium of Communication Used:
(1) That the degree of self-disclosure of
participants, did in fact reach the level that I had desired, and required for
this study, and that it was more than capable of generating such levels if the
researcher remained aware of the traps and pitfalls which accompany this medium,
just as in 'conventional' interaction.
(2) That electronic forms of interaction,
particularly as part of a research study, are more difficult to sustain,
although this may be an affect of the long-term relationship requirements of
this particular project.
(3) That the fact that I was a female
researcher was of significant value with regards to the degree and type of data
which was generated by participants.
Themes
Generated by Participant Data
(4) That these men needed to talk about their
lives, in an emotional and reflective manner in order to comprehend something of
their masculine selves.
(5) That parental relationships, particularly
those between father and son, were significant factors in the majority of
participants present day sense of self, and how they conceived of themselves as
men. This also affected their later attitudes towards girlfriends, wives and
children and friends.
The primary aim of this chapter has been to
explore and contextualise the method of inquiry used in this study, to
illustrate how interviews were structured and how this method was used as a
framework within which significant emerging themes could be revealed. This
method of inquiry demonstrated a working relationship between method and
practice, which could maximise the transformation of data into information and
knowledge. It should be noted, however, that this study is very much a
preliminary and exploratory research 'journey'. It is nevertheless potent and
enigmatic, and it is these two extremes that I, as researcher, must remain
mindful of as I document my findings.